Issue: 2

October 15-31, 2024

THEME OF THE FORTNIGHT

URBAN PLANNING

REPORTS

Morphology of Delhi National Capital Region’s economic geography and its implications for planning

Author(s): WRI – India
Publication Details: World Resources Institute (WRI), 2023

This report analyses the transformation of the Delhi National Capital Region (NCR) through an economic geography lens, exploring whether its industrial structure, demography, and spatial interdependencies have achieved efficiency, equity, and energy conservation since the 1991 liberalisation. Spanning over 55,000 sq. km across four states, with a population of 71.8 million in 2021, Delhi NCR represents India’s economic powerhouse and government hub. Despite its economic interconnections, the region face governance challenges due to its political diversity, jurisdictional separation, and socio-economic disparities. Planning efforts, though, remain largely prescriptive and infrequent, with no dedicated economic development agency facilitating consistent engagement with industries or non-state actors.

The industrial structure of Delhi NCR has followed historical patterns, with sectors like “Trade” and “Textiles” retaining dominance between 1991 and 2014. Employment distribution indicates that 34% of jobs were in secondary sector, 14% in primary sector, while the tertiary sector emerged as the leading economic driver, accounting for 52% of employment. Informal workers, estimated at 5.87 million, strongly complemented the formal workforce, underscoring the region's economic complexity.

Spatial analysis revealed that job density peaked within a 10–20 km radius from Delhi’s core but tapered off beyond 40 km, highlighting uneven economic growth. The decentralisation of economic activity from the Core NCT to the CNCR Periphery and the Rest of Region emerged as a key trend, with these peripheries attracting more investments and showing higher per capita incomes than the core. Despite decentralisation, the transition fostered complementarity, as jobs relocated from the core were absorbed within the region rather than being lost.

The report also identifies improvements in workforce participation, poverty reduction, and rising per capita income across the sub-regions. However, while the Central NCR Periphery evolved as an economic hub, the core failed to develop into a high-technology economy. The findings offer valuable insights for developing frameworks in other Indian and Global South mega city regions, helping target spatial investments and ensuring equitable distribution of economic benefits.

Smart Cities Mission, India: Localizing Sustainable Development Goals

Author(s): UN-Habitat Core Team

Publication Details: UN-HABITAT, 2023

In this report, the transformation of 100 cities across India as part of the Smart Cities Mission (SCM) is examined through the lens of SDGs. The mission has reached the lives of more than 100 million urban dwellers in India. SCM offers a unique scale for SDG localization: the mission has undertaken over 7,800 projects across 100 cities since its inception in 2015 and directed an investment of over USD 22 billion. SDGs have remained an integral part of mission management and reporting since the early phase of SCM.

SCM is built on three core pillars: Liveability, Economic-ability, and Sustainability, which align with 15 out of the 17 SDGs. These pillars are further divided into 21 sub-sectors, and the mission's progress is monitored through the Output-Outcome Monitoring Framework (OOMF), utilizing 213 indicators mapped to 51 out of 169 targets across 15 SDGs. Six SDGs are selected for in-depth coverage in this report: 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 17. The report has adopted a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods for SDG localization.

Sixty six per cent of SCM cities have a population of less than one million, highlighting its relevance for smaller urban areas, and provide a significant opportunity for the intermediary Indian cities to follow suit for their development trajectory.

The mission's primary focus has been on improving infrastructure and basic services, significantly enhancing the quality of life in emerging urban spaces. By June 2024, projects worth USD 7.32 billion are slated for completion, further propelling urban transformation across the country.

Overall, the SCM serves as a model of decentralised governance, neighbourhood-led planning, and innovative financing, offering a people-centric, integrated approach to urbanization that sets a precedent for inclusive, resilient, and sustainable development in cities across the Global South.

Reforms in Urban Planning Capacity in India

Author(s): NITI Aayog

Publication Details: NITI Aayog, 2021

The report emphasises the urgent need for comprehensive urban planning in India, which houses nearly 11% of the global urban population and is projected to experience significant growth by 2036. Despite efforts from central and state governments, unplanned urbanisation has placed immense pressure on cities, resulting in inadequate infrastructure, severe pollution, and social inequities that predominantly affect marginalised communities. The report highlights that the lack of proper urban governance and planning frameworks has severely hindered sustainable development.

A key finding is that 65% of India's 7,933 urban settlements lack master plans, which are essential for managing urban growth and ensuring spatial sustainability. Furthermore, the urban planning sector faces a considerable shortfall in personnel; a study indicates a need for over 12,000 town planners, yet only about 4,000 sanctioned positions exist, many of which remain vacant. This shortage, combined with outdated development regulations and a fragmented educational ecosystem, complicates urban planning efforts.

To address these challenges, the Advisory Committee proposes several recommendations. Cities should aspire to become "healthy cities for all" by 2030, focusing on optimising land use and improving development regulations based on empirical evidence. The report advocates for stronger educational programs that align with market needs, ensuring that graduates are equipped with the skills necessary for effective urban governance.

Ramping up human resources in the public sector is also crucial to ensure a qualified workforce capable of addressing urbanization challenges. Revising the Town and Country Planning Acts to harmonise urban and rural planning and enhance citizen participation in the planning process is vital. Furthermore, fostering local leadership to emphasise the importance of urban planning and public policy is essential, as is strengthening the role of the private sector in planning initiatives.

Ultimately, the report advocates for a collaborative approach involving political leaders, decision-makers and planners, to create a unified vision for urban development, emphasising that effective planning is essential for sustainable economic growth and environmental preservation.

Incorporating Climate Resilience in Urban Planning and Policy Making Focus on Armenia, Georgia, and Uzbekistan

Author(s): Asian Development Bank Team

Publication Details: Asian Development Bank, 2023

This report by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) provides high-level climate risk assessments for Armenia, Georgia, and Uzbekistan, focusing on mainstreaming climate mitigation and adaptation into urban planning to ensure climate-resilient growth. Rapid urbanisation and environmental challenges have increased the vulnerability of these countries’ cities, making it essential to address risks such as extreme floods, heat waves, and water scarcity through targeted urban policies and planning strategies.

The report leverages climate data, models, and projections to create detailed risk profiles at both national and city levels. It outlines the potential impacts of climate hazards on key infrastructure, services, and communities, offering actionable solutions to reduce exposure and vulnerability. The assessments guide urban focal agencies, ADB project teams, and development practitioners in embedding resilience into policies and project design, ensuring alignment with each country’s climate commitments.

The recommendations provided in the report are already shaping several critical urban projects. In Georgia, ADB’s Sustainable Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Development Program and the Livable Cities Investment Project is helping to enhance urban resilience. In Uzbekistan, Integrated Urban Development Project is supporting sustainable infrastructure in secondary cities with plans for replication in other areas.

Each country’s climate risk profile consists of three key sections: Climate Trends and Risk Diagnostics at national and city levels; Mainstreaming Climate Resilience through urban planning strategies; and Infrastructure Design Considerations for resilient urban development.

Aligned with ADB’s holistic resilience framework, the report emphasises nature-based solutions, sustainable infrastructure, capacity-building, and institutional improvements. It encourages governments to integrate climate resilience into development strategies in line with their nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and adaptation goals. This initiative is part of ADB’s broader climate strategy, which includes mobilizing $100 billion by 2030, with $34 billion earmarked for adaptation.

RESEARCH PAPERS

Urban Planning and Informal Livelihoods in India: An Analysis of Urban Planning Laws and Processes in Delhi and Bangalore

Author(s): Mathew Idiculla

Publication Details: WIEGO Working Papers, 2022

The paper critically examines the legal framework of urban planning in India and its impact on informal workers. It highlights the significant role urban planning plays in shaping the development and functioning of cities, particularly focusing on how planning laws and processes affect informal livelihoods in Delhi and Bangalore. Key findings are summarised as follows:

Top-Down Planning Approach: The study argues that India’s urban planning law framework is predominantly top-down, with bureaucratic agencies preparing plans with limited local-level accountability and minimal stakeholder participation, including informal workers.
Impact on Informal Workers: The Master Plan for Delhi–2041 and urban planning initiatives in Bangalore, such as mixed-use zoning and the Tender SURE road design, are analysed to understand their effects on street vendors, waste pickers, and home-based workers. The findings suggest that, while some provisions acknowledge the informal sector, the accompanying development control norms impose restrictive conditions.
Legal and Institutional Framework: The paper delves into the evolution of urban planning laws in India, the authority to plan, and the participatory aspects of the planning process. It highlights the challenges in plan implementation and the regularisation of planning violations, which often do not benefit informal workers.
Recommendations for Inclusivity: The document emphasises the need for more inclusive planning processes that actively involve informal worker organisations to ensure that urban development is equitable and supportive for all city residents.

Overall, the paper calls for a re-evaluation of urban planning laws and practices to better accommodate and support the livelihoods of informal workers in Indian cities.

Re-thinking Urban Planning in India: Learning from the Wedge between the de jure and de facto Development in Mumbai

Author(s): Abhay Pethe, Ramakrishna Nallathiga, Sahil Gandhi, Vaidehi Tandel

Publication Details: Elsevier Cities, 2014

The paper explores the significant gaps between planned urban development and actual landuse in Mumbai, reflecting broader trends in cities of the global south. It highlights, how globalisation and liberalisation have transformed the production structure, leading to substantial informalities in housing and livelihoods. Through an empirical study in a Mumbai suburb, the research reveals that master plans, which rely heavily on technical principles, fail to anticipate or adapt to the city's dynamic economic and spatial changes.

The findings indicate a significant divergence between the planned and actual land use, driven by factors such as declining industrial activity and rising demand for commercial properties. While the official development control regulations (DCRs) outline processes for land use changes, the reality often involves informal practices, including bribery and coercion. The prevalence of slums, which provide informal housing solutions, exemplifies the disconnect between land use plans and actual needs, revealing that adherence to land use regulations does not ensure security of tenure. The paper underscores the intense political negotiations surrounding land distribution, which accommodate corporate interests while addressing slum dwellers' needs through informal arrangements.

Ultimately, the paper critiques current urban planning practices in India, calling for a re-evaluation that emphasizes adaptability, inclusiveness, and responsiveness to market dynamics. Recommendations include moving away from micro-management, aligning plans with broader reforms, incorporating participatory approaches, and allowing for mid-course corrections to better serve the evolving needs of urban populations.

The Emerging Data–driven Smart City and its Innovative Applied Solutions for Sustainability: The Cases of London and Barcelona

Author(s): Simon Elias Bibri, John Krogstie

Publication Details: Springer Open, Bibri and Krogstie Energy Informatics, 2020

The research paper investigates the impact of big data technologies on urban environments, particularly how they can enhance sustainability in the context of rapid urbanization. The authors discuss the rise of data-driven urbanism, which has become a cornerstone for the development of smart cities to address sustainability challenges. Using a descriptive case study methodology, the paper examines and compares London and Barcelona as leading examples of data-driven smart cities in Europe. It finds that both cities exhibit a high level of development in applied data-driven technologies. However, they show slight variations in the implementation of these technologies across different urban systems and sustainability domains. The cities differ in their readiness regarding the infrastructure and competencies needed to effectively generate, transmit, process, and analyze large datasets. London is noted for its superior ICT infrastructure and data sources, while Barcelona excels in creating data-oriented competencies, including horizontal information platforms, operations centers, dashboards, training programs, educational institutions, innovation labs, research centers, and strategic planning offices.

The study underscores that the data-driven sustainable smart approach employed by both cities contributes to various sustainability areas, yet there is a notable dominance of environmental and economic goals over social objectives in the development and implementation of data-driven solutions. Big data technologies significantly enrich urban experiences by facilitating more informed decision-making regarding monitoring, analysing, and planning cities. However, the authors caution that while these advancements present new opportunities, they also come with potential downsides that warrant consideration.

The paper argues for a generalizable framework based on their findings, suggesting that other cities can apply the lessons learned from London and Barcelona to implement data-driven technological solutions tailored to their unique sustainability challenges and resources.

In conclusion, the paper encourages further research into the emerging phenomenon of data-driven cities, specifically qualitative studies that can shed light on the core dimensions of data-driven sustainable concepts. It seeks to inform future urban planning efforts by illustrating the effective use of big data technologies and advocating for a novel model that combines elements of the data-driven smart city, eco-city, and compact city paradigms, thereby contributing to a more sustainable urban future.

Ecosystem Service Implementation and Governance Challenges in Urban Green Space Planning : The Case of Berlin, Germany

Author(s): Nadja Kabisch

Publication Details: Land Use Policy, 2015

The research paper explores the integration of the ecosystem service framework within Berlin's urban green planning structure. It highlights the growing recognition among urban landscape planners of the value that ecosystem services add to the quality of life for city residents.

Through an analysis of strategic planning documents and expert interviews with local stakeholders, the authors assess the current organisation and implementation of the ecosystem service framework in Berlin. They find that, while stakeholders are generally aware of the term "ecosystem services," its explicit mention in planning documents remains rare. Most references to ecosystem services appear in informal strategies, which lack legally binding power, although some formal documents, like the Landscape Program and the Urban Development Plan for Climate, do acknowledge related landscape functions and ecosystem benefits.

The paper identifies several key governance challenges facing Berlin's urban green spaces: (a) increasing development pressure due to population growth and financial constraints on municipal budgets, (b) a loss of expertise within planning departments, and (c) low awareness of green benefits among stakeholders stemming from insufficient communication.

The study cites previous findings that many landscape planners in Germany are unfamiliar with the ecosystem service concept, even though they consider related service types in their plans. The paper argues that addressing the identified governance challenges requires decision-makers to understand the ecosystem service framework and its benefits better. By improving awareness and integrating ecosystem services into decision-making, planners could leverage these services as communicative tools to justify budget allocations for green space maintenance.

Informal green space initiatives, such as community gardening and pocket parks, are highlighted as ways citizens are actively participating in maintaining urban greenery, providing ecosystem services, and fostering community engagement. Examples include the "Prinzessinnengärten," where residents have transformed a brownfield into a communal garden. The study recommends using cost-effective strategies related to ecosystem services to enhance urban planning and sustainability efforts.

Spatio-temporal Impact of Industrial Corridor Development on Built-up Growth: A Case of Delhi

Author(s): Purba Biswas & Priyanka Dey

Publication Details: GeoJournal, 2023

Industrial corridors have a determinate effect on the transformation of its surrounding regions and cities. This study analyses the influence of Delhi–Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) in India, on land cover transformation and built-up growth along its 1500 km stretch. Comparative analysis was done between the percentage of built-up areas in the districts falling within DMIC influence area, districts outside the influence area and the states/union territories in totality for the years 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2020. The built-up percentage within the DMIC influence area was consistently found to be higher in comparison to the area outside the influence; indicating the impact of corridor development. A sharp rise in built-up growth was observed after 2015, post which the major part of DMIC came up. Further micro-level land cover transformation and built-up growth analyses were conducted on the city of Surat, to identify the nature and direction of transformation from 2005 - 2020. Surat was found to have undergone dynamic growth in the built-up area from 25.78% in 2015 to 32.57% in 2020. Evidence indicates that corridor development and industrial growth directly impact built-up growth and land cover transformation.

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